POLLUTION PROBLEMS AND AN ENGINEERING APPROACH TO THE MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS IN OTTA, NIGERIA

• CERTIFICATION – – – – – –   ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT – – – – –   iv DEDICATION – – – – – –   vii TABLE OF CONTENTS – – – – – – viii LIST OF TABLES – – – – – –   xiv LIST OF FIGURES – – – – – –   xvi LIST OF PLATES – – – – – – xviii LIST OF ACRONYMS – – – – – –   xix ABSTRACT – – – – – – –   xxii

Chapter ONE

INTRODUCTION

• – – – – – –   1 1 INTRODUCTION – – – – – –   1 11 Background to the Study – – – – –   1 12 Statement of the Problem – – – – –   1 13 Aims of the Research – – – – –   2 14 Specific Objectives of the Study – – – –   2 15 Justification for the Research – – – –   3 16 Scope of the Study – – – – – –   3 17 Delimitation of the Study – – – – –   3 18 Operational Definition of Terms – – – –   4 19 Expected Result and Contribution to Knowledge – – –   8 191 Expected Results – – – – – –   8 192 Expected Contributions to Knowledge – – – –   8CHAPTER TWO – – – – – –   10 2 LITERATURE REVIEW – – – – –   10 21 Water Quality and Pollution Problems – – –   10 211 Water Quality – – – – – – 10 212 Pollution Problems – – – – – – 11 213 Causes of Water Pollution – – – – – 11 214 Sources and Effects of Water Pollution – – – – 13 22 Receiving Environment Characteristics – – – –  14 221 Assimilative Capacity of the Receiving Water – – – 15 222 Views on Global Water Quality – – – – 16 23 Water Quality in Nigeria – – – – –   18 24 Historical Development of Hydrodynamic Systems – – –   20 25 Historical Development of Water Quality Models – –   21 251 Early Modeling Works – – – – – 21 26 Water Quality Standards – – – – –   29 27 Hydrodynamics and Hydraulics – – – – –   31 271 Hydraulic Routing Techniques – – – – – 34 272 1-Dimensional Equation of Motion – – – – 37 273 2-Dimensional Equations of Motion – – – – 41 274 3-Dimensional Equations of Motion – – – – 43 28 Numerical Solution Techniques – – – – –   45 281 Finite Difference Solution Method – – – – 46 2811 Explicit Finite Differences – – – – – – 47 2812 Implicit Finite Differences – – – – – – 48 282 Finite Element Solution Method – – – – 49 29 Conceptual Framework of Water quality model – – –   51 210 Review of Available, Applicable Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Models   – – – – – – –   55 2101 Water Quality Analysis Simulation Program – – – – 55 2102 Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model Selection – – – 56 2103 Case Studies Utilizing DYNHYD and WASP Modeling Software – – 57 2104 QUAL2E (The Enhanced Stream Water Quality Model) – – 57 21041 The Scope and Components of QUAL2E – – – – 58 211 QUAL2K Input File Generation – – – –   60 2111 Dissolved Oxygen – – – – – – 60 2112 Model Framework and Scientific Details – – – – 62 21121 Model Inputs – – – – – – 63 21122 Model Outputs – – – – – – – 64 2113 Transport Processes – – – – – 64 2114 Conversion Processes – – – – – – 66CHAPTER THREE – – – – – –   67 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: Materials and Methods – –   67 31 The Research Design – – – – –   67 311 Design Brief Formulation – – – – – 67 312 Survey Approach and Survey Instrument – – – – 69 32 Study Site – – – – – –   73 321 Survey of Industries – – – – – – 73 322 Determination of pollutant sources, types and quantities – – – 74 33 Sampling Techniques – – – – –   74 34 Field Sampling and Analyses – – – –   77 341 Site Characterization Studies – – – – – 78 342 Method of Sample Collection – – – – – 78 35 Laboratory Test Studies and Pilot â“ Scale Studies – –   79 36 Engineering Model Design and Pilot â“Scale Studies (Modeling, Simulation and Treatability Studies) – – – – –   80CHAPTER FOUR – – – – – –   82 4 MODEL APPLICATION TO RIVER ATUWARA – – –   82 41 Model Study Area: Atuwara River, Ogun State Nigeria – –   82 411 River Atuwara Origin and Course – – – – 83 412 River Atuwara: Geology, Climate and Hydrology – – – 84 413 Vegetation, Agriculture and Hunting – – – – 89 414 Human Population – – – – – – 89 415 Uses of the River Atuwara – – – – – 92 4151 Irrigation – – – – – – – 92 4152 Fisheries and Livestocks – – – – – 92 4153 Recreation around the Watershed – – – – – 92 416 Industry along River Atuwara – – – – – 93 4161 Industrial Polluants – – – – – – 93 42 Data Collection and Processing – – – –   102 421 Flow Types – – – – – – – 102 4211 Low Flow Analysis: Flow and Pollution Loads – – – – 102 4212 Oxygen Reaeration Formulae: Internal Calculation of the Reaeration Ratio – 103 422 Channel and Flow Data – – – – – 104 4221 Flow Data – – – – – – – 104 4222 Instantaneous Release – – – – – – 105 4223 Continuous Release – – – – – – 106 4224 Biological Decay – – – – – – 107 423 Hydrodynamics Predictions – – – – – 107 424 Continuous Variable Hydrodynamics – – – – 108 425 Hydro- geometric Data – – – – – 108 43 Condition for Simulation with QUAL2K – – –   111 431 Mass Balance – – – – – – 115 432 QUAL2K Calibration – – – – – 116 433 Reaction Rate Constants – – – – – 117 434 Flow and Pollution Loads – – – – – 117 435 How QUAL2K Obtain Solutions Numerically – – – 117 436 Model Configuration/Model Segmentation – – – – 121 437 Model Parameters – – – – – – 121 4371 Initial Condition Based on Observation from Atuwara River Watershed – 125 4372 Initial Condition Based on Best Professional Judgment – – – 125 438 Model Loading Rates/Endpoint Identification – – – 127 439 Reaeration rate constants – – – – – 129 4310 BOD Loadings, Concentrations and Rates – – – – 130 43101 BOD Removal Rates – – – – – 133 43102 Settling – – – – – – – 133 43103 Bed Effects – – – – – – 134 4311 QUAL2K APPLICATION – – – – – 136 44 Application of GIS to River Atuwara Watershed/Study Area – –   139 45 Measurement of Contamination from Industrial Discharge by GIS –   141 46 SUMMARY OF RESULTS – – – –   142CHAPTER FIVE – – – – – – –   171 5 EFFLUENT TREATABILITY STUDIES – – –   171 51 INTRODUCTION – – – – –   171 52 Analytical methods – – – – –   173 53 Materials and Methods – – – – –   174 54 Experimental Results and Discussion – – –   177 55 Uses of Activated Carbon for Effluents Treatment – – –   181CHAPTER SIX – – – – – –   185 6 DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS, SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS-185 61 Research Finding and Discussion – – – –   185 62 Summary of Hydrodynamics Model Results – – –   188 63 Summary of QUAL2K Model Results – – – –   188 64 Treatability Studies Results – – – – –   189 65 Research Contribution to knowledge – – – –   190 66 Future Directions in River Modeling in Nigeria – – –   192CHAPTER SEVEN – – – – – –   194 7 RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS – –   194 71 Research Conclusions – – – – –   194 711 The Model Software – – – – – – 194 712 Location Description – – – – – 195 713 Water Quality Standard for all Assessment Units in this Research – – 195 714 Priority Pollutants along the Atuwara Watershed – – – 198 72 Recommendations – – – – –   202REFERENCES – – – – – –   205 APPENDIX A – – – – – –   220 WATER QUALITY COMPONENTS – – – –   220 APPENDIX B – – – – – –   223 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES – – – –   223 Industrial Assessment Form – – – – –   225 APPENDIX C – – – – – –   233 TABLES UTILIZED FOR MODEL SELECTION – – –   233 APPENDIX D – – – – – –   241SECTORAL GROUPING OF ADO ODO /OTTA INDUSTRIES – –   241 Sector A: Food, Beverages & Tobacco – – – –   241 Sector B : Chemical & Pharmaceuticals – – – –   242 Section C: Domestic & Industrial Plastics, Rubber & Foam – –   243 Sector D: Basic Metal, Iron, Steel & Fabricated Metal Products – –   244 Sector E: Pulp Paper & Paper Products; Printing & Publishing – –   245 Sector F: Electrical And Electronics – – – –   245 Sector G: Wood & Wood Products Furniture – – –   245 Sector H: Non Metallic Mineral Products – – – –   246 APPENDIX E – – – – – –   247 INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT DATA – – – –   247 The General Food and Beverages Industry – – –   262 Generation of Liquid Wastes in Industries – – –   264 Generation of Hazardous Wastes – – – – –   266 LIST OF TABLES Table 21: Development Periods of Water Quality Models (Chapra, 1997) –   26 Table 22: Abbreviated List of Water Quality Models with Reference – –   28 Table 23: Stokesâs Settling Velocities (in m/day) at 20°C – – –   33 Table 31: Location of the 10 Sector Industries – – –   70 Table 32: Outline of a generalized sampling protocol – – –   76 Table 41: Ranges of discharge coefficients and exponents – –   116 Table 42 Average values and ranges of exponents in hydro geometric correlations – – – – – – –   120 Table 43 Water Quality Calibration Rates and Coefficients – –   126 Table 44 Typical Values for the ratio of 5=day to ultimate BOD – –   132 Table 45: Typical loading rates for untreated domestic sewage – – –   132 Table 46   Model reaches Delineation – – – –   137 Table 47: October 14, 2008 Atuwara Rivers Model Water Quality Input Data –   142 Table 48: October 14, 2008 Atuwara Rivers Statistical Summary of Analytical Data – – – – – – –   143 Table 49: October 14, 2008 Atuwara Rivers Field Measured Hydrogeometric Parameters – – – – – –   144 Table 410: October 14, 2008 Atuwara River Water Quality Model Loading Rates 148 Table 411: February 17, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Model Water Quality Input Data –   149 Table 412: February 17, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Statistical Summary of Analytical Data – – – – – – –   150 Table 414: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River Water Quality Model Loading Rates – – – – – – –   155 Table 415: March 18, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Model Water Quality Input Data –   156 Table 416: March 18, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Statistical Summary of Analytical Data – – – – – – –   157 Table 417: March 18, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Field Measured Hydrogeometric Parameters – – – – – –   158 Table 418: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River Water Quality Model Loading Rates –   162 Table 419: May 11, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Model Water Quality Input Data –   163 Table 420: May 11, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Statistical Summary of Analytical Data 164 Table 421: May 11, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Field Measured Hydrogeometric Parameters – – – – – –   165 Table 422: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River Water Quality Model Loading Rates –   170 Table 51 Energy Variation of Electro-Fenton Experiments – –   180 Table 52Characteristics of effluents treatment by Electro- Fenton – – – – – – –   180 Table 53 Specification of Quality and Use of Granular Activated Carbon –   183 Table 54 Result of Effluents Treatment with both Electro – Fenton and GAC BBC 945 – – – – – – –   184 Table 71: Individual Reach Description: Summary of River Atuwara Watershed Impairment addressed in this research – – – –   201 Table C1   Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix – – –   233 Table C1   Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd) – – –   235 Table C1   Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd) – – –   236 Table C1 Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd) – –   237 Table C1   Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd) – – –   238 Table C1   Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd) – – –   239 Table E1: Water Quality Analysis of Selected Industries in Ado â“ Odo Otta –   247 Table E2: Water Quality Analysis of Selected Industries in Ado â“ Odo Otta and Lagos – – – – – – –   249 Table E3: Water Quality Trends in Selected Receiving Water Bodies from 1980 â“ 1997 – – – – – – –   251 Table E4: Industrial Sub-Sectoral Types, Raw Materials, Products & Waste Characterization – – – – – –   252 Table E5: Volume of Wastewater Produced by Some Industrial Sector – –   261 Table E6: Characteristic of Typical Brewery and Distillery Wastewater – –   262 Table E7: Volume of Wastewater Produced by Some Industrial Sector – –   265 Table E8: Source and Types of Hazardous Waste in Some Industries – –   267 LIST OF FIGURES Fig 21 An urban waterâ”wastewater system – – – –   22 Fig22: Schematic of water quality model used for a typical River Estuary –   53 Fig23 Schematic description of the water quality model QUAL2E – –   66 Figure 31 Map of Otta District, Ogun State Nigeria – – –   72 Figure 41: General Layout of the Study Area – – – –   86 Figure 42: River Atuwara Watershed – – – –   87 Figure 43: River Atuwara Watershed and Built-up Areas – – –   91 Figure 44: River Atuwara and Industrial Locations – – –   95 Figure 45: River Atuwara Wetland and Sampling Points – – –   101 Figures 46 Cross â“ Section of the basin to calculate other parameters – –   113 Fig 47: Computational Grid Set – Up – – – –   123 Figure 48 Location Map showing sampling Points and Tributaries – –   124 Figure 49a Total removal rate versus stream depth for BOD that is 50% in settleable form   – – – – – –   135 Figure 49b In â“ Stream decomposition rate versus depth ( Bowie et al ,1985) –   135 Figure 410: October 14, 2008 Atuwara River Dissolved Oxygen Vs River Flow Model   Predictions – – – – –   145 Figure 411: October 14,2008 Atuwara River CBOD Vs River Flow Model Predictions – – – – – –   145 Figure 412: October 14, 2008 Atuwara River CBOD and Model Predictions –   146 Figure 413: October 14, 2008 Atuwara River CBOD, DO and Model Predictions   146 Figure 414: October 14 2008 Atuwara River CBOD, Vs SOD Model Predictions   147 Figure 415: October 14, 2008 Atuwara River TBODu, Vs SOD Model Predictions – – – – – – –   147 Figure 416: February 17 2009, Atuwara River Dissolved Oxygen Vs River Flow Model Predictions – – – – – –   152 Figure 417: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD Vs River Flow Model Predictions – – – – – –   152 Figure 418: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD and Model Predictions –   153 Figure 419: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, DO and Model Predictions 153 Figure 420: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, Vs SOD Model Predictions – – – – – – –   154 Figure 421: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River TBODu, Vs SOD Model Predictions – – – – – – –   154 Figure 422: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River Dissolved Oxygen Vs River Flow Model Predictions – – – – – –   159 Figure 423: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD Vs River Flow Model Predictions – – – – – – –   159 Figure 424: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD and Model Predictions –   160 Figure 1425: March 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, DO and Model Predictions   160 Figure 426: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, Vs SOD Model Predictions –   161 Figure 427: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River TBODu, Vs SOD Model Predictions   161 Figure 428: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River Dissolved Oxygen Vs River Flow Model Predictions – – – – – –   166 Figure 429: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD Vs River Flow Model Predictions – – – – – – –   166 Figure 430: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD and Model Predictions –   167 Figure 431: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, DO and Model Predictions –   167 Figure 432: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, Vs SOD Model Predictions –   168 Figure 433: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River TBODu, Vs SOD Model Predictions –   169 Figure 51 Electro â“Fenton Experimental Set â“ up – – –   176 Figure 71: Improved activated carbon Bed – – – –   199LIST OF PLATES PLATE I River Atuwara and Iju Villagers – – – –   94 PLATE II River Atuwara soon recovers after receiving effluents from a Food Processing Firm – – – – – –   94 PLATE IIIA truck discharging combined effluents into River Atuwara at Ekusere – – – – – – –   98 PLATE IV Abattoir on River Atuwara upper boundary at Owode â“ Ijako along Lagos Abeokuta Expressway – – – – –   98 PLATE V River Atuwara upper boundary at Owode â“ Ijako along Lagos Abeokuta Expressway – – – – –   99 PLATE VI River Aturwara receiving solid wastes from the environment –   99 PLATE VIISampling from Distilleries effluents along River Atuwara Watershed – – – – – – –   100 PLATE VIII Distilleries effluents cascading into River Atuwara – –   100 PLATE IX Hydrogeometric Measurement on River Atuwara – –   110 PLATE X Hydrogeometric Measurement at Iju Water Works lower down stream   110 PLATE XI Laboratory Bench Scale Electro â“Fenton Experimental set – up –   178 PLATE XII Running the Laboratory Bench â“ Scale Electro Fenton Experiment   178 PLATE XIII Measuring water quality parameters from Laboratory Bench- Scale Electro â“ Fenton Experiment – – – –   179 LIST OF ACRONYMS BOD     Biochemical Oxygen Demand CBOD     Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand   CE-QUAL-ICM   Three-Dimensional Eutrophication Model CE â“QUAL-W2   Two â“ Dimensional, Laterally-Averaged Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model COD Chemical Oxygen Demand   DO       Dissolved Oxygen   DYNHYD   Link Node Tidal Hydrodynamic Model EFDC     Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code   FEPA       Federal Environmental Protection Agency GIS     Geographic Information Systems   GPS     Global Positioning System   HEM-3D     Three-Dimensional Hydrodynamic-Eutrophication Model   HM     Heavy Metals HSPF     Hydrologic Simulation Program â“ FORTRAN   IPP     Integrated Product Policy MAN     Manufacturers Association of Nigeria   MEDLI     Model for Effluent Disposal using Land Irrigation MEPP     Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning NBOD     Nitrogenous Biochemical Oxygen Demand NH3-N       Ammonia-nitrogen   NMS     National Minimum Standards NPES       National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System OGEPA   Ogun State Environmental Protection Agency OPO4     Ortho-Phosphorus or Inorganic Phosphorus   QUAL2E   Enhanced Stream Water Quality Model   QUAL2K   Enhanced Stream Water Quality Model (Improved) RIVMOD-H     River Hydrodynamics Model and   SBR     Sequencing Batch Reactors SOD     Sediment Oxygen Demand TBOD     Total Biochemical Oxygen Demand TDS     Total Dissolved Solids TMDL     Total Maximum Daily Load TOC       Total Organic Carbon   TPWQM   Tidal Prism Water Quality Model   TSS     Total Suspended Solids TVA     Tennessee Valley Authority   UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization USEPA       United States Environmental Protection Agency USGS     United State Geological Survey WASP Water Quality Analysis Simulation Programme Water Quality Model Developed by USEPA WES     World Environmental Systems   WHO       World Health Organization   WTP     Water Treatment Plant   WWTP     Wastewater Treatment Plant