Evaluation of the trace – element composition of the leaf extract – a focus on piper methysticum (awa)

Thesis Overview

<p> </p><p><strong>INTRODUCTION</strong></p><p><strong>1.1 Herbs</strong></p><p>An herb is a plant that is valued for flavor, scent, medicinal or other qualities other than its food value (John, 2000). They are used in cooking, as medicines, and for spiritual purposes. Herbs have a variety of uses including culinary and medicinal usage. General usage differs between culinary herbs and medicinal herbs (John, 2000). Herbs are “generally recognized as safe” by the Food &amp; Drug Administration (FDA), at least at concentrations commonly found in foods (Kaefer <em>et al</em>, 2008). Medicinal plants continue to provide valuable therapeutic agents, both in modern medicine and in traditional system (Reaven, 1983). The leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, root bark, inner bark (cambium), berries and sometimes the pericarp or other portions of the plant might be considered in medicinal or spiritual use (John, 2000). In the medicinal uses, herbs (plants) contain phytochemicals that have effects on the body (John, 2000).</p><p>Until the 20th century, (Sanusi <em>et al</em>, 2008) most medicinal remedies all over the world were obtained from plants. For example, purple forglove was found to be helpful in dropsy, the opium poppy for pain, cough, and diarrhea, and the cinchona bark for fever. With the emergence of chemical and pharmacological methods in the 20th century, it became possible to identify the active ingredients in the plants and study them. Furthermore, once the chemistry was understood, it was possible to synthesize related molecules with more desirable properties. According to (Sodimu <em>et al</em>, 2008), today, the two most effective and widely accepted drugs for the treatment of malaria today emerged through herbal traditional medicine viz: Quinine from the bark of the Peruvian cinchona tree and artemisinin from the Chinese antipyretic Artemisia annua L. Hence, throughout history, the medicinal benefits of herbs are quoted (John, 2000). There may be some effects when consumed in the small levels that typify culinary “spicing”, and some herbs are toxic in larger quantities. For instance, some types of herbal extract, such as the extract of St. John’s-wort (<em>Hypericum perforatum</em>) or of awa (<em>Piper methysticum</em>) can be used for medical purposes to relieve depression and stress (John, 2000). However, (Milner <em>et al</em>, 2008), large amounts of these herbs may lead to toxic overload that may involve complications, some of a serious nature, and should be used with caution. One herb-like substance, called Shilajit, may actually help a lower blood glucose level which is especially important for those suffering from diabetes.</p><p>In comparative terms, (Metuh, 1987) the western idea of medicine and the traditional African conception differ in scope. In the traditional sense, it refers to a wholistic view of well being, while in the western sense, it is strictly limited to bodily therapeutic purposes. Nze in his own comparative analysis of medicine underscores the peculiarity difference, which defines the traditional wholistic perception of medicine (Metuh, 1987).</p><p>According to (John, 2000), modern pharmaceuticals had their origins in crude herbal medicines, and to this day, many drugs are still extracted as fractionate/isolate compounds from raw herbs and then purified to meet pharmaceutical standards. Some herbs are used not only for culinary and medicinal purposes, but also for psychoactive and/or recreational purposes; one such herb is cannabis (John, 2000).</p><p>However, many herbs and their bioactive components are being investigated for potential disease prevention and treatment at concentrations which may exceed those commonly used in food preparation herbs (Milner <em>et al</em>, 2008). It is therefore imperative to identify any potential safety concerns associated with the use of various dosages which range from doses commonly used for culinary purposes to those used for medicinal purposes since there are often unclear boundaries between the various uses of herbs (Milner <em>et al</em>, 2008).</p><p>Other uses of herbs other than medicinal uses are:</p><p>Sacred uses:</p><p>According to “<em>Chinese herbal medicine</em>” Herbs are used in many religions for example, myrrh (<em>Commiphora myrrha</em>) and &nbsp;frankincense (<em>Boswellia</em>&nbsp;spp) in Christianity, the Nine Herbs Charm in Anglo-Saxon paganism, the Neem tree (<em>Azadirachta indica</em>) by the Tamils, holy basil or <em>tulsi</em>&nbsp;(<em>Ocimum tenuiflorum</em>) in Hinduism, and many Rastafarians consider cannabis (<em>Cannabis sp</em>) to be a holy plant (John, 2000). Siberian Shamans also used herbs for spiritual purposes. Plants may be used to induce spiritual experiences, such as vision quests in some Native American cultures (John, 2000). The Cherokee Native Americans use sage and cedar for spiritual cleansing and smudging.</p><p>Uses as pest control:</p><p>Herbs are also known amongst gardeners to be useful for pest control. Mint, spearmint, peppermint, and pennyroyal are a few such herbs. These herbs when planted around a house’s foundation can help keep unwanted critters away such as flies, mice, ants, fleas, moth and tick amongst others. They are not known to be harmful or dangerous to children or pets, or any of the house’s fixtures (John, 2000).</p><p><strong>1.2 &nbsp; &nbsp; Objectives of study</strong></p><p><em>Piper methysticum</em>&nbsp;being a plant used for its medical and social purposes (Johnston <em>et al</em>, 2008), may have been of great benefits in human health due to its biochemical, pharmacological, and medical properties. This study, therefore, was undertaken to evaluate the trace – element composition of the leaf extract.</p><h2>REFERENCES</h2><p>Bilia, A.R., Gallori, S. and Vincieri, F. (2002). Kava-kava and anxiety: growing knowledge about the efficacy and safety. Life Sciences 70: 2581–2597.</p><p>Blumenthal, M. (1999). Herb market levels after five years of boom: 1999 sales in mainstream market up only 11% in first half of 1999 after 55% increase in 1998. HerbalGram 47: 64–65.</p><p>Cagnacci, A., Volpe, A. and Arangino, S. (2003). Kava_/Kava administration reduces anxiety in perimenopausal women. Maturitas: The European Menopause Journal 44: 103 – 109</p><p>Chikara, J. (2003). Study on the allelopathy of Kava (Piper methysticum L.). MSc Thesis. Miyazaki University, Japan, p. 70.</p><p>Davis, R.I. and Brown, J.F. (1999). Kava (Piper methysticum) in the South Pacific: its importance, methods of cultivation, cultivars, diseases and pests. Canberra, Australia. p.13.</p><p>Dentali, S.J. (1997). Herb Safety Review. Piper methysticum Forster f. (Piperaceae). Herb Research Foundation, Boulder, CO.</p><p>Dragulla, K., Yoshida B, W. and Tanga, C. (2003). Piperidine alkaloids from Piper methysticum. Phytochemistry 63: 193–198</p><p>Duve, R.N. (1976). Highlight of the chemistry and pharmacology of yaqona, Piper methysticum. Fiji Agriculture Journal 38: 81–84.</p><p>El-Gamal, H.M., Shaker, H.K., Pollmann, K. and Seifert, K. (1995). Triterpenoid saponins from zygophyllum species. Phytochemistry 40 (4): 1233–1236.</p><p>Ernst, E. (2002). Safety concerns about kava. Lancet 359: 1865.</p><p>Fricchione, G. (2004). Clinical practice: Generalized anxiety disorder. N. Engl. J. Med. 351: 675–682.</p><p>Gow, P.J., Connelly, N.J., Hill, R.L., Crowley, P. and Angus, P.W. (2003). Fatal fulminant hepatic<br>failure induced by a natural therapy containing kava. Medical Journal of Australia 178: 442–443.</p><p>Hamdy, A., Mansour, A., Al-Sayeda, A., Newairya, M.I. and Shewe Itac S.A. (2002). Biochemical study on the effects of some Egyptian herbs in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Toxicology 170: 221–228.</p><p>Humberston, C.L., Akhtar, J. and Krenzelok, E.P. (2003). Acute hepatitis induced by kava kava. Journal of Toxicology/Clinical Toxicology 41: 109–113.</p><p>Ibrahim, N.M. (1990). MSc Thesis. Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University pp.1–150.</p><p>Ibrahim, R.F. (1998). MSc Thesis. Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, pp. 1–124.</p><p>Jaggy, H. and Achenbach, H. (1992). Cephradine A from Piper methysticum. Planta Med. 58: 111</p><p>Johnston, E. and Rogers, H. (2006). Hawaiian ‘awa. Views of an ethnobotanical treasure (808) 323-3318.</p><p>Kaefer, M.C. and Milner, J.A. (2008). The role of herbs and spices in cancer prevention. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 19: 347–361</p><p>Kohli, R.K., Batish, D. and Singh, H.P. (1998). Allelopathy and its implications in agro-ecosystems. Journal of Crop Production 1: 169 – 202.</p><p>Lebot, V. and Levesque, J. (1996). Genetic control of kavalactone chemotypes in Piper methysticum cultivars. Phytochemistry 43: 397–403.</p><p>Lebot, V., Merlin, M. and Lindstrom, L. (1997). Kava, the Pacific elixir. Yale University Press, New Haven.</p><p>Mansour, H.A. and New Airy, A.A. (2000). Amelioration of impaired renal function associated with diabetes by Balanites aegyptiaca fruits in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Medical Research Institute. 21 (4): 115–125.</p><p>Metuh, E.I. (1987). Comparative Studies in African Traditional Religion. A division of Eternal Communication, Nigeria. P. 74</p><p>Nelson, Scot. (2007). Plant Disease. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 123: 378 – 384</p><p>Nerurkar, P.V., Dragull, K. and Tang, C.S. (2004). In vitro toxicity of kava alkaloid, pipermethystine, in HepG2 cells compareds to kavalactones. Toxicological Science 79: 106–111</p><p>Pittler, M.H. and Edzard, E. (2000). Efficacy of kava extract for treating anxiety: systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacol 20: 84 – 89.</p><p>Reaven, G.M. (1983). Effect of age and diet on insulin secretion and insulin action in the rat. Journal of Medicine. 74: 69.</p><p>Russmann, S., Lauterburg, B.H. and Helbling, A. (2001). Kava hepatotoxicity. Ann. Intern. Med. 35: 68–69.</p><p>Schulze, J., Raasch, W. and Siegers, C.P. (2003). Toxicity of kava pyrones, drug safety and precautions—a case study. Phytomedicine. 10: 68–73</p><p>Singh, Y.N. (1998). Blumenthal M. Kava, an overview. Herbalgram. 39: 33 – 55.</p><p>Smith, R.M. (1983). Kava lactones in Piper methysticum from Fiji. Phytochemistry 22: 1055–1056.</p><p>Sodimu, A.I., Faleyimu, O.I., Oloruntoba, M.M. and Sanusi, A.O. (2008). International Journal of<br>Development in Medical Sciences. Vol.1.</p><p>Stoller, R. (2000). Lebersch digungen unter Kava-Extrakten. Schweizerische Ärztezeitung 81: 1335–1336.</p><p>Teschke, R., Gaus, W. and Lowe, D. (2003). Kava extracts: safety and risks including rare hepatotoxicity. Phytomedicine 10: 440–446.</p><p>Teschke, R., Moreno, F. and Petrides, A.S. (1981). Hepatic microsomal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS): respective roles of ethanol and carbohydrates for the enhanced activity after chronic alcohol consumption. Biochemical Pharmacology 30: 1745–1751.</p><p>Teschke, R., Neuefeind, M., Nishimura, M. and Strohmeyer, G. (1983). Hepatic gamma glutamyl- transferase activity in fatty liver: comparison with other liver enzymes in man and rats. Gut 24:625–630.</p><p>Teschke, R. and Petrides, A.S. (1982). Hepatic gamma-glutamyltransferase activity: its increase following chronic alcohol consumption and the role of carbohydrates. Biochemical Pharmacology 31: 3751–3756.</p><p>Teschke, R. and Schwarzenbeck, A. (2009). Suspected hepatotoxicity by Cimicifuga racemosa rhizoma (black cohosh, root): critical analysis and structured causality assessment. Phytomedicine 16: 72–84.</p><p>Teschke, R., Schwarzenböck, A. and Hennermann, K.H. (2008). Kava hepatotoxicity: a clinical survey and critical analysis of 26 suspected cases. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 20: 1182–1193.</p><p>Weise, B., Wiese, M., Plotner, A. and Ruf, B.R. (2002). Toxic hepatitis after intake of kava-kava. Verdauungskrankheiten 4: 166–169.</p><p>Whitton, P.A., Lau, A., Salisbury, A., Whitehouse, J. and Evans, C.S. (2003). Kava lactones and the kava-kava controversy. Phytochemistry 64: 673–679</p><p>Xuan, T.D., Tsuzuki, E., Matsuo, M. and Khanh, T.D. (2003). Kava root (Piper methysticum L.) as a potential natural herbicide and fungicide. Crop Protection. 22: 873 – 881</p><p>Zimmerman, H.J. (1999). Hepatotoxicity: The Adverse Effects of Drugs and Other Chemicals on the Liver, second edition. Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, Pp. 11–40.</p> <br><p></p>